Peptide Research Hub

Frias JP, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2021

Phase 3 trial (SURPASS-2) comparing tirzepatide (5/10/15 mg) vs semaglutide (1 mg) over 40 weeks in 1,879 patients. Tirzepatide at all doses was superior to semaglutide for HbA1c reduction and weight loss. Weight reduction was 1.9–5.5 kg greater with tirzepatide. GI adverse events were primarily mild to moderate.

Garvey WT, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine (SURMOUNT-5) · 2025

72-week phase 3b trial in 751 participants with obesity but without diabetes. Tirzepatide achieved -20.2% body weight vs -13.7% with semaglutide. Tirzepatide was superior for weight reduction and waist circumference. GI adverse events were mostly mild to moderate during dose escalation.

Rosenstock J, et al. · The Lancet · 2021· CC-BY-NC

40-week double-blind phase 3 trial in 478 patients with type 2 diabetes. All tirzepatide doses (5/10/15 mg) were superior to placebo for HbA1c reduction, fasting glucose, and body weight. Established tirzepatide as an effective dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist.

Frias JP, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2021

Phase 3 trial comparing tirzepatide vs semaglutide (1 mg) over 40 weeks. Semaglutide achieved -1.86% HbA1c reduction. Established the comparative efficacy profile between these two GLP-1 receptor agonists.

Karagiannis T, et al. · Diabetologia · 2024· CC-BY

Network meta-analysis of 28 trials with 23,622 participants. Semaglutide 2.0 mg achieved -1.59% HbA1c reduction and semaglutide 1.0 mg achieved -1.39%. Provides comparative efficacy data across GLP-1 receptor agonist doses.

Sikiric P, et al. · Current Pharmaceutical Design · 2007

Comprehensive review of BPC-157's beneficial effects on gastrointestinal lesions, pancreas, liver, heart, and wound/fracture healing. Describes interactions with dopamine, NO, prostaglandin, and somatosensory neuronal systems. Proposes BPC-157 as a physiological defense system peptide.

Tasar MH, et al. · PubMed · 2025· CC-BY

Rat model (n=24) showing BPC-157 (20 µg/kg IP) reduced oxidative stress markers (MDA, TOS), restored antioxidants (SOD, TAS), downregulated pro-apoptotic genes (p53, Bax, Casp3), and reduced inflammation. Histological analysis confirmed improved muscle architecture.

Sikiric P, et al. · Pharmaceuticals (MDPI) · 2025· CC-BY

Review addressing BPC-157's pleiotropic healing effects, angiogenesis modulation, and NO-system regulation. Reports high safety profile (LD1 not achieved), anti-tumor potential in vivo and in vitro, and counteraction of neurodegenerative disease models. Discusses corneal healing without neovascularization.

Sikiric P, et al. · Journal of Physiology (Paris) · 1993

Original research demonstrating BPC-157's protective effects against restraint stress, cysteamine, and ethanol-induced ulcers in rats. Showed strong endothelial protection via Monastral blue studies. The foundational study establishing BPC-157 as a cytoprotective agent.

Sikiric P, et al. · Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology (PMC) · 2019· CC-BY-NC

Open-access review of BPC-157 as a mediator of Robert's cytoprotection/organoprotection and Selye's stress coping response. Covers protection against alcohol, NSAIDs, and wound healing. Discusses endothelial protection, NO-system modulation, and dopamine/serotonin interactions.

Goldstein AL, et al. · Europe PMC (Preprint) · 2026· CC-BY

Scoping review of 80 studies from 1,772 records. Evidence was weighted toward in vitro and animal designs. Most studies evaluated TB4 rather than TB-500. Human evidence concentrated in ocular/corneal and wound/skin settings. Direct TB-500 evidence was limited to a single study. Literature supports repair pathways but remains largely preclinical.

Goldstein AL, et al. · Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy · 2015

Review of Tβ4's regenerative activity including stem cell maturation, tissue repair, eye injuries, dermal wounds, cardiac repair post-MI, and brain healing post-stroke. Discusses potential clinical applications in kidney, liver, spinal cord, bone, and ligament repair.

Kim H, et al. · PubMed · 2024· CC-BY

Pharmacokinetic study identifying TB-500 metabolites. Ac-LK was the primary metabolite; Ac-LKK was a long-term metabolite detected up to 72 hours. No cytotoxicity found. Ac-LKKTE showed significant wound healing activity in fibroblasts. Suggests TB-500's wound-healing activity may be mediated through its metabolites.

Sosne G, et al. · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · 2010

Compassionate use study in 9 patients (ages 37-84) with chronic neurotrophic corneal defects treated with Tβ4 eye drops for 28-49 days. Six patients with geographic defects showed dramatic healing without neovascularization. All patients reported reduced ocular irritation.

Teichman SL, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · 2006

Two randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind ascending dose trials. Single CJC-1295 injection produced dose-dependent 2-10x GH increases for 6+ days and 1.5-3x IGF-I increases for 9-11 days. Estimated half-life 5.8-8.1 days. Safe and well tolerated at 30-60 µg/kg.

Iglesias J, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · 2006

Assessed GH pulsatility after 60 or 90 µg/kg CJC-1295 in healthy men. GH pulsatility was preserved. Basal (trough) GH levels increased 7.5-fold. Mean GH increased 46% and IGF-I increased 45%. Demonstrates CJC-1295 enhances trough GH while maintaining physiological pulsatility.

Jette L, et al. · Endocrinology · 2005

Original characterization of CJC-1295 as a tetrasubstituted hGRF(1-29) analog with drug affinity complex (DAC) technology. Showed 4-fold increase in GH AUC vs hGRF(1-29) in rats. CJC-1295 remained in plasma beyond 72 hours via albumin binding. Foundational pharmacokinetic study.

Bhasin S, et al. · Frontiers in Endocrinology · 2026· CC-BY

Review of GH-releasing secretagogues including ipamorelin. Discusses the gap between clinical evidence and patient self-administration. Notes reported adverse effects including prolactin and cortisol elevations, appetite changes, and fluid retention. Bridges clinical evidence with real-world use patterns.

Pickart L, et al. · BioMed Research International · 2015· CC-BY

Comprehensive review of GHK-Cu in skin repair. GHK declines from 200 ng/mL at age 20 to 80 ng/mL at age 60. Stimulates collagen, glycosaminoglycans, and decorin synthesis. Modulates metalloproteinases. Accelerates wound healing in skin, hair follicles, GI tract, and bone. Capable of up/downregulating ~4,000 human genes.

Maquart FX, et al. · Journal of Clinical Investigation · 1993

In vivo wound chamber study in rats. GHK-Cu produced concentration-dependent increases in dry weight, DNA, total protein, collagen, and glycosaminoglycans. Collagen synthesis stimulated 2x more than noncollagen proteins. Demonstrated GHK-Cu as an activator of extracellular matrix accumulation in wounds.

Pollack SV, et al. · Archives of Dermatology · 2006

Randomized study in 13 patients post-CO2 laser resurfacing. No significant difference in erythema resolution or objective wrinkle improvement vs control. However, patient satisfaction was significantly higher with GHK-Cu (P=.04). Suggests subjective benefits in post-procedural skin recovery.

Khavinson VKh, Bondarev IE, Butyugov AA · Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine · 2003

English-language publication. Epithalon (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) induced expression of telomerase catalytic subunit, enzymatic telomerase activity, and telomere elongation in telomerase-negative human fetal fibroblasts. Suggests reactivation of telomerase gene in somatic cells, indicating potential for prolonging cell population lifespan.

Khavinson VKh · Neuro Endocrinology Letters · 2002

144-page supplement reviewing Khavinson's work on peptide bioregulators. Epithalamin increases melatonin production, improves immune parameters, produces anticarcinogenic effects, stimulates antioxidant defenses, and restores reproductive function in old rats. Increases lifespan in rats, mice, and fruit flies. Describes design principles for short tissue-specific peptides including Epitalon (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly).

Khavinson VKh, Morozov VG · Advances in Gerontology · 2002

6-8 year clinical study in 266 elderly patients. Thymalin and Epithalamin normalized cardiovascular, endocrine, immune, and nervous system function. 2.0-2.4-fold decrease in acute respiratory disease incidence. Mortality decreased 2.0-2.1x with Thymalin, 1.6-1.8x with Epithalamin, and 4.1x with combined annual treatment over 6 years vs control.

Khavinson VKh, Izmaylov DM · Mechanisms of Ageing and Development · 2000

English-language publication. Epitalon increased lifespan of Drosophila melanogaster by 11-16% at concentrations of 0.001 and 0.0001%. Demonstrated antioxidant effects. Established epitalon as a geroprotector (anti-aging compound) in a well-controlled invertebrate model.

Khavinson VKh, Kuznik BI, Ryzhak GA · Advances in Gerontology · 2014· CC-BY-NC

English-language review of clinical efficacy of peptide bioregulators (Timalin, Thymogen, Vilon, Epithalamin, Prostatilen, Cortexin, Retinalamin). Analyzes their use as geroprotectors across all age groups. Reviews long-term clinical studies demonstrating disease prevention and health maintenance in elderly populations.

Khavinson VKh, Kuznik BI, Ryzhak GA · Advances in Gerontology · 2014· CC-BY-NC

Reviews peptide bioregulators including Vilon (Lys-Glu / KE peptide), which has immunomodulatory, oncostatic, and geroprotective effects. KE peptide regulates SIRT1, PARP1, and PARP2 gene expression in aging human mesenchymal stem cells. Part of Khavinson's broader peptide bioregulator framework.